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12
latex/thesis/chapters/appendix.tex
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@ -508,7 +508,7 @@ $\gamma \in \left\{ 0.01, 0.05, 0.15 \right\}$.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
legend columns=1, legend columns=1,
legend pos=outer north east, legend pos=outer north east,
@ -549,7 +549,7 @@ $\gamma \in \left\{ 0.01, 0.05, 0.15 \right\}$.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
legend columns=1, legend columns=1,
legend pos=outer north east, legend pos=outer north east,
@ -593,7 +593,7 @@ $\gamma \in \left\{ 0.01, 0.05, 0.15 \right\}$.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
legend columns=1, legend columns=1,
legend pos=outer north east, legend pos=outer north east,
@ -647,7 +647,7 @@ $\gamma \in \left\{ 0.01, 0.05, 0.15 \right\}$.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
legend columns=1, legend columns=1,
legend pos=outer north east, legend pos=outer north east,
@ -692,7 +692,7 @@ $\gamma \in \left\{ 0.01, 0.05, 0.15 \right\}$.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
legend columns=1, legend columns=1,
legend pos=outer north east, legend pos=outer north east,
@ -735,7 +735,7 @@ $\gamma \in \left\{ 0.01, 0.05, 0.15 \right\}$.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
legend columns=1, legend columns=1,
legend pos=outer north east, legend pos=outer north east,

12
latex/thesis/chapters/comparison.tex
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@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ algorithms.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5, ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5,
width=\textwidth, width=\textwidth,
@ -376,7 +376,7 @@ algorithms.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5, ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5,
width=\textwidth, width=\textwidth,
@ -414,7 +414,7 @@ algorithms.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5, ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5,
width=\textwidth, width=\textwidth,
@ -455,7 +455,7 @@ algorithms.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5, ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5,
width=\textwidth, width=\textwidth,
@ -490,7 +490,7 @@ algorithms.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5, ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5,
width=\textwidth, width=\textwidth,
@ -523,7 +523,7 @@ algorithms.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5, ymax=1.5, ymin=8e-5,
width=\textwidth, width=\textwidth,

14
latex/thesis/chapters/introduction.tex
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@ -2,15 +2,15 @@
\label{chapter:introduction} \label{chapter:introduction}
Channel coding using binary linear codes is a way of enhancing the reliability Channel coding using binary linear codes is a way of enhancing the reliability
of data by detecting and correcting any errors that may have occurred during of data by detecting and correcting any errors that may occur during
transmission or storage. its transmission or storage.
One class of binary linear codes, \ac{LDPC} codes, has become especially One class of binary linear codes, \ac{LDPC} codes, has become especially
popular due to being able to reach arbitrarily small probabilities of error popular due to being able to reach arbitrarily small probabilities of error
at code rates up to the capacity of the channel, while retaining a structure at code rates up to the capacity of the channel, while retaining a structure
that allows for very efficient decoding. that allows for very efficient decoding.
While the established decoders for \ac{LDPC} codes, such as \ac{BP} and the While the established decoders for \ac{LDPC} codes, such as \ac{BP} and the
\textit{min-sum algorithm}, offer reasonable performance, they are suboptimal \textit{min-sum algorithm}, offer reasonable decoding performance, they are suboptimal
in most cases and exhibit a so called \textit{error floor} for high \acp{SNR}, in most cases and exhibit an \textit{error floor} for high \acp{SNR},
making them unsuitable for applications with extreme reliability requiremnts. making them unsuitable for applications with extreme reliability requiremnts.
Optimization based decoding algorithms are an entirely different way of approaching Optimization based decoding algorithms are an entirely different way of approaching
the decoding problem, in some cases coming with stronger theoretical guarantees the decoding problem, in some cases coming with stronger theoretical guarantees
@ -22,10 +22,10 @@ the existing literature by considering a variety of different codes.
Specifically, the \textit{proximal decoding} \cite{proximal_paper} Specifically, the \textit{proximal decoding} \cite{proximal_paper}
algorithm and \ac{LP} decoding using the \ac{ADMM} \cite{original_admm} are explored. algorithm and \ac{LP} decoding using the \ac{ADMM} \cite{original_admm} are explored.
The two algorithms are analyzed based on their theoretical structure The two algorithms are analyzed based on their theoretical structure
and on results of simulations conducted in the scope of this work. and based on the results of the simulations conducted in the scope of this work.
Approaches to determine the optimal value of each parameter are derived Approaches to determine the optimal value of each parameter are derived
and the computational and decoding performance of the algorithms is examined. and the computational and decoding performance of the algorithms is examined.
An improvement on proximal decoding is suggested, offering up to $\SI{1}{dB}$ An improvement on proximal decoding is suggested, achieving up to $\SI{1}{dB}$
of gain in decoding performance, depending on the parameters chosen and the of gain, depending on the parameters chosen and the
code considered. code considered.

56
latex/thesis/chapters/proximal_decoding.tex
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@ -256,12 +256,15 @@ process and straightforward debugging ability.
It was subsequently reimplemented in C++ using the Eigen% It was subsequently reimplemented in C++ using the Eigen%
\footnote{\url{https://eigen.tuxfamily.org}} \footnote{\url{https://eigen.tuxfamily.org}}
linear algebra library to achieve higher performance. linear algebra library to achieve higher performance.
The focus has been set on a fast implementation, sometimes at the expense of The focus has been on a fast implementation, sometimes at the expense of
memory usage, somewhat limiting the size of the codes the implementation can be memory usage, somewhat limiting the size of the codes the implementation can be
used with. used with.
The evaluation of the simulation results has been wholly realized in Python. The evaluation of decoding operations and subsequent calculation of \acp{BER},
\acp{FER}, etc., has been wholly realized in Python.
The gradient of the code-constraint polynomial \cite[Sec. 2.3]{proximal_paper} Concerning the proximal decoding algorithm itself, there are certain aspects
presenting optimization opportunities during the implementation.
The gradient of the code-constraint polynomial \cite[Sec. 2.3]{proximal_paper}, for example,
is given by% is given by%
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
@ -279,7 +282,7 @@ is given by%
% %
Since the products Since the products
$\prod_{i\in N_c\left( j \right) } \tilde{x}_i,\hspace{2mm}j\in \mathcal{J}$ $\prod_{i\in N_c\left( j \right) } \tilde{x}_i,\hspace{2mm}j\in \mathcal{J}$
are the same for all components $\tilde{x}_k$ of $\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}$, they can be are identical for all components $\tilde{x}_k$ of $\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}$, they can be
precomputed. precomputed.
Defining% Defining%
% %
@ -325,7 +328,7 @@ The impact of the parameters $\gamma$, as well as $\omega$, $K$ and $\eta$ is
examined. examined.
The decoding performance is assessed based on the \ac{BER} and the The decoding performance is assessed based on the \ac{BER} and the
\ac{FER} as well as the \textit{decoding failure rate} - the rate at which \ac{FER} as well as the \textit{decoding failure rate} - the rate at which
the algorithm produces invalid results. the algorithm produces results that are not valid codewords.
The convergence properties are reviewed and related to the decoding The convergence properties are reviewed and related to the decoding
performance. performance.
Finally, the computational performance is examined on a theoretical basis Finally, the computational performance is examined on a theoretical basis
@ -335,8 +338,9 @@ thesis.
All simulation results presented hereafter are based on Monte Carlo All simulation results presented hereafter are based on Monte Carlo
simulations. simulations.
The \ac{BER} and \ac{FER} curves in particular have been generated by The \ac{BER} and \ac{FER} curves in particular have been generated by
producing at least 100 frame-errors for each data point, unless otherwise producing at least 100 frame errors for each data point, unless otherwise
stated. stated.
\todo{Same text about monte carlo simulations and frame errors for admm}
\subsection{Choice of Parameters} \subsection{Choice of Parameters}
@ -478,10 +482,10 @@ significantly affects the decoding performance, there is not much benefit
attainable in undertaking an extensive search for an exact optimum. attainable in undertaking an extensive search for an exact optimum.
Rather, a preliminary examination providing a rough window for $\gamma$ may Rather, a preliminary examination providing a rough window for $\gamma$ may
be sufficient. be sufficient.
When examining a number of different codes (figure When examining a number of different codes, see figure
\ref{fig:prox:results_3d_multiple}), it is apparent that while the exact \ref{fig:prox:results_3d_multiple}, it is apparent that while the exact
landscape of the graph depends on the code, the general behavior is the same landscape of the graph depends on the code, the general behavior is the same
in each case. for all codes analyzed in this thesis.
The parameter $\gamma$ describes the step-size for the optimization step The parameter $\gamma$ describes the step-size for the optimization step
dealing with the code-constraint polynomial; dealing with the code-constraint polynomial;
@ -490,7 +494,7 @@ negative-log likelihood.
The relationship between $\omega$ and $\gamma$ is portrayed in figure The relationship between $\omega$ and $\gamma$ is portrayed in figure
\ref{fig:prox:gamma_omega}. \ref{fig:prox:gamma_omega}.
The color of each cell indicates the \ac{BER} when the corresponding values The color of each cell indicates the \ac{BER} when the corresponding values
are chosen for the parameters. are chosen for the decoding.
The \ac{SNR} is kept constant at $\SI{4}{dB}$. The \ac{SNR} is kept constant at $\SI{4}{dB}$.
The \ac{BER} exhibits similar behavior in its dependency on $\omega$ and The \ac{BER} exhibits similar behavior in its dependency on $\omega$ and
on $\gamma$: it is minimized when keeping the value within certain on $\gamma$: it is minimized when keeping the value within certain
@ -547,7 +551,7 @@ error is observed during each iteration of the decoding process, for several
different \acp{SNR}. different \acp{SNR}.
The plots have been generated by averaging the error over $\SI{500000}{}$ The plots have been generated by averaging the error over $\SI{500000}{}$
decodings. decodings.
As some decodings go one for more iterations than others, the number of values As some decodings go on for more iterations than others, the number of values
which are averaged for each datapoints vary. which are averaged for each datapoints vary.
This explains the dip visible in all curves around the 20th iteration, since This explains the dip visible in all curves around the 20th iteration, since
after this point more and more correct decodings are completed, after this point more and more correct decodings are completed,
@ -558,7 +562,7 @@ timing requirements of the decoding process.
Another aspect to consider is that the higher the \ac{SNR}, the fewer Another aspect to consider is that the higher the \ac{SNR}, the fewer
decodings are present at each iteration decodings are present at each iteration
to average, since a solution is found earlier. to average, since a solution is found earlier.
This explains the decreasing smoothness of the lines as the \ac{SNR} rises. This explains the decreasing smoothness of the lines as the \ac{SNR} increases.
Remarkably, the \ac{SNR} seems to not have any impact on the number of Remarkably, the \ac{SNR} seems to not have any impact on the number of
iterations necessary to reach the point at which the average error iterations necessary to reach the point at which the average error
stabilizes. stabilizes.
@ -609,7 +613,7 @@ optimum values for the parameters $\gamma$ and $\omega$ appears to bring
limited benefit; limited benefit;
an initial rudimentary examination to find the general bounds in which the two an initial rudimentary examination to find the general bounds in which the two
values should lie is sufficient. values should lie is sufficient.
The parameter $K$ is independent of the $SNR$ and raising its value above a The parameter $K$ is independent of the \ac{SNR} and raising its value above a
certain threshold does not improve the decoding performance. certain threshold does not improve the decoding performance.
The choice of $\eta$ is insignificant and the parameter is only relevant as a The choice of $\eta$ is insignificant and the parameter is only relevant as a
means to bring about numerical stability. means to bring about numerical stability.
@ -699,7 +703,7 @@ means to bring about numerical stability.
Until now, only the \ac{BER} has been considered to gauge the decoding Until now, only the \ac{BER} has been considered to gauge the decoding
performance. performance.
The \ac{FER}, however, shows considerably worse behavior, as can be seen in The \ac{FER}, however, shows considerably different behavior, as can be seen in
figure \ref{fig:prox:ber_fer_dfr}. figure \ref{fig:prox:ber_fer_dfr}.
Besides the \ac{BER} and \ac{FER} curves, the figure also shows the Besides the \ac{BER} and \ac{FER} curves, the figure also shows the
\textit{decoding failure rate}. \textit{decoding failure rate}.
@ -719,7 +723,8 @@ This leads to the hypothesis that, at least for higher \acp{SNR}, frame errors
arise mainly due to the non-convergence of the algorithm instead of arise mainly due to the non-convergence of the algorithm instead of
convergence to the wrong codeword. convergence to the wrong codeword.
This course of thought will be picked up in section This course of thought will be picked up in section
\ref{sec:prox:Improved Implementation} to try to improve the algorithm. \ref{sec:prox:Improved Implementation} when proposing a method toimprove the
algorithm.
In summary, the \ac{BER} and \ac{FER} indicate dissimilar decoding In summary, the \ac{BER} and \ac{FER} indicate dissimilar decoding
performance. performance.
@ -730,10 +735,11 @@ the frame errors may largely be attributed to decoding failures.
\subsection{Convergence Properties} \subsection{Convergence Properties}
\label{subsec:prox:conv_properties} \label{subsec:prox:conv_properties}
The previous observation, that the \ac{FER} may arise mainly due to the The previous observation that the \ac{FER} may arise mainly due to the
non-convergence of the algorithm instead of convergence to the wrong codeword, non-convergence of the algorithm instead of convergence to the wrong codeword,
raises the question why the decoding process does not converge so often. raises the question why the decoding process does not converge so often.
In figure \ref{fig:prox:convergence}, the iterative process is visualized. To better understand this issue, the iterative process is visualized in
figure \ref{fig:prox:convergence}.
In order to be able to simultaneously consider all components of the vectors In order to be able to simultaneously consider all components of the vectors
being dealt with, a BCH code with $n=7$ and $k=4$ is chosen. being dealt with, a BCH code with $n=7$ and $k=4$ is chosen.
Each plot shows one component of the current estimate during a given Each plot shows one component of the current estimate during a given
@ -961,7 +967,7 @@ As such, the constraints are not being satisfied and the estimate is not
converging towards a valid codeword. converging towards a valid codeword.
While figure \ref{fig:prox:convergence} shows only one instance of a decoding While figure \ref{fig:prox:convergence} shows only one instance of a decoding
task, with no statistical significance, it is indicative of the general task with no statistical significance, it is indicative of the general
behavior of the algorithm. behavior of the algorithm.
This can be justified by looking at the gradients themselves. This can be justified by looking at the gradients themselves.
In figure \ref{fig:prox:gradients} the gradients of the negative In figure \ref{fig:prox:gradients} the gradients of the negative
@ -1087,7 +1093,7 @@ value of the parameter $\gamma$ has to be kept small, as mentioned in section
\ref{sec:prox:Decoding Algorithm}. \ref{sec:prox:Decoding Algorithm}.
Local minima are introduced between the codewords, in the areas in which it is Local minima are introduced between the codewords, in the areas in which it is
not immediately clear which codeword is the most likely one. not immediately clear which codeword is the most likely one.
Raising the value of $\gamma$ results in Increasing the value of $\gamma$ results in
$h \left( \tilde{\boldsymbol{x}} \right)$ dominating the landscape of the $h \left( \tilde{\boldsymbol{x}} \right)$ dominating the landscape of the
objective function, thereby introducing these local minima into the objective objective function, thereby introducing these local minima into the objective
function. function.
@ -1099,7 +1105,7 @@ visualized for one component of a code with $n=204$, for a single decoding.
The two gradients still eventually oppose each other and the estimate still The two gradients still eventually oppose each other and the estimate still
starts to oscillate, the same as illustrated in figure starts to oscillate, the same as illustrated in figure
\ref{fig:prox:convergence} based on a code with $n=7$. \ref{fig:prox:convergence} based on a code with $n=7$.
However, in this case, the gradient of the code-constraint polynomial iself However, in this case, the gradient of the code-constraint polynomial itself
starts to oscillate, its average value being such that the effect of the starts to oscillate, its average value being such that the effect of the
gradient of the negative log-likelihood is counteracted. gradient of the negative log-likelihood is counteracted.
@ -1171,7 +1177,7 @@ The codes considered are the BCH(31, 11) and BCH(31, 26) codes, a number of (3,
regular \ac{LDPC} codes (\cite[\text{96.3.965, 204.33.484, 408.33.844}]{mackay_enc}), regular \ac{LDPC} codes (\cite[\text{96.3.965, 204.33.484, 408.33.844}]{mackay_enc}),
a (5,10) regular \ac{LDPC} code (\cite[\text{204.55.187}]{mackay_enc}) and a a (5,10) regular \ac{LDPC} code (\cite[\text{204.55.187}]{mackay_enc}) and a
progressive edge growth construction code (\cite[\text{PEGReg252x504}]{mackay_enc}). progressive edge growth construction code (\cite[\text{PEGReg252x504}]{mackay_enc}).
Some deviations from linear behavior are unavoidable because not all codes Some deviations from linear behavior are unavoidable, since not all codes
considered are actually \ac{LDPC} codes, or \ac{LDPC} codes constructed considered are actually \ac{LDPC} codes, or \ac{LDPC} codes constructed
according to the same scheme. according to the same scheme.
Nonetheless, a generally linear relationship between the average time needed to Nonetheless, a generally linear relationship between the average time needed to
@ -1228,7 +1234,7 @@ And indeed, the magnitude of the oscillation of
$\nabla h\left( \tilde{\boldsymbol{x}} \right)$ (introduced previously in $\nabla h\left( \tilde{\boldsymbol{x}} \right)$ (introduced previously in
section \ref{subsec:prox:conv_properties} and shown in figure section \ref{subsec:prox:conv_properties} and shown in figure
\ref{fig:prox:convergence_large_n}) and the probability of having a bit \ref{fig:prox:convergence_large_n}) and the probability of having a bit
error are strongly correlated, a relationship depicted in figure error are strongly correlated, a relationship being depicted in figure
\ref{fig:prox:correlation}. \ref{fig:prox:correlation}.
% %
\begin{figure}[h] \begin{figure}[h]
@ -1329,7 +1335,7 @@ In some cases, a gain of up to $\SI{1}{dB}$ or higher can be achieved.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={BER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={BER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
width=0.48\textwidth, width=0.48\textwidth,
height=0.36\textwidth, height=0.36\textwidth,
@ -1360,7 +1366,7 @@ In some cases, a gain of up to $\SI{1}{dB}$ or higher can be achieved.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={FER}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={FER},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
width=0.48\textwidth, width=0.48\textwidth,
height=0.36\textwidth, height=0.36\textwidth,
@ -1392,7 +1398,7 @@ In some cases, a gain of up to $\SI{1}{dB}$ or higher can be achieved.
\begin{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[ \begin{axis}[
grid=both, grid=both,
xlabel={$E_b / N_0$}, ylabel={Decoding Failure Rate}, xlabel={$E_b / N_0$ (dB)}, ylabel={Decoding Failure Rate},
ymode=log, ymode=log,
width=0.48\textwidth, width=0.48\textwidth,
height=0.36\textwidth, height=0.36\textwidth,

129
latex/thesis/chapters/theoretical_background.tex
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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
In this chapter, the theoretical background necessary to understand this In this chapter, the theoretical background necessary to understand this
work is given. work is given.
First, the notation used is clarified. First, the notation used is clarified.
The physical aspects are detailed - the used modulation scheme and channel model. The physical layer is detailed - the used modulation scheme and channel model.
A short introduction to channel coding with binary linear codes and especially A short introduction to channel coding with binary linear codes and especially
\ac{LDPC} codes is given. \ac{LDPC} codes is given.
The established methods of decoding LPDC codes are briefly explained. The established methods of decoding LPDC codes are briefly explained.
@ -204,7 +204,7 @@ Each row of $\boldsymbol{H}$, which represents one parity-check, is viewed as a
Each component of the codeword $\boldsymbol{c}$ is interpreted as a \ac{VN}. Each component of the codeword $\boldsymbol{c}$ is interpreted as a \ac{VN}.
The relationship between \acp{CN} and \acp{VN} can then be plotted by noting The relationship between \acp{CN} and \acp{VN} can then be plotted by noting
which components of $\boldsymbol{c}$ are considered for which parity-check. which components of $\boldsymbol{c}$ are considered for which parity-check.
Figure \ref{fig:theo:tanner_graph} shows the tanner graph for the Figure \ref{fig:theo:tanner_graph} shows the Tanner graph for the
(7,4) Hamming code, which has the following parity-check matrix (7,4) Hamming code, which has the following parity-check matrix
\cite[Example 5.7.]{ryan_lin_2009}:% \cite[Example 5.7.]{ryan_lin_2009}:%
% %
@ -285,15 +285,16 @@ Message passing algorithms are based on the notion of passing messages between
\acp{CN} and \acp{VN}. \acp{CN} and \acp{VN}.
\Ac{BP} is one such algorithm that is commonly used to decode \ac{LDPC} codes. \Ac{BP} is one such algorithm that is commonly used to decode \ac{LDPC} codes.
It aims to compute the posterior probabilities It aims to compute the posterior probabilities
$p_{C_i \mid \boldsymbol{Y}}\left(c_i = 1 | \boldsymbol{y} \right),\hspace{2mm} i\in\mathcal{I}$ $p_{C_i \mid \boldsymbol{Y}}\left(c_i = 1 | \boldsymbol{y} \right),\hspace{2mm} i\in\mathcal{I}$,
\cite[Sec. III.]{mackay_rediscovery} and use them to calculate the estimate $\hat{\boldsymbol{c}}$. see \cite[Sec. III.]{mackay_rediscovery} and use them to calculate the estimate
$\hat{\boldsymbol{c}}$.
For cycle-free graphs this goal is reached after a finite For cycle-free graphs this goal is reached after a finite
number of steps and \ac{BP} is equivalent to \ac{MAP} decoding. number of steps and \ac{BP} is equivalent to \ac{MAP} decoding.
When the graph contains cycles, however, \ac{BP} only approximates the probabilities When the graph contains cycles, however, \ac{BP} only approximates the \ac{MAP} probabilities
and is sub-optimal. and is sub-optimal.
This leads to generally worse performance than \ac{MAP} decoding for practical codes. This leads to generally worse performance than \ac{MAP} decoding for practical codes.
Additionally, an \textit{error floor} appears for very high \acp{SNR}, making Additionally, an \textit{error floor} appears for very high \acp{SNR}, making
the use of \ac{BP} impractical for applications where a very low \ac{BER} is the use of \ac{BP} impractical for applications where a very low error rate is
desired \cite[Sec. 15.3]{ryan_lin_2009}. desired \cite[Sec. 15.3]{ryan_lin_2009}.
Another popular decoding method for \ac{LDPC} codes is the Another popular decoding method for \ac{LDPC} codes is the
\textit{min-sum algorithm}. \textit{min-sum algorithm}.
@ -457,29 +458,38 @@ which minimizes the objective function $g$.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\section{An introduction to the proximal gradient method and ADMM} \section{A Short Introduction to the Proximal Gradient Method and ADMM}
\label{sec:theo:Optimization Methods} \label{sec:theo:Optimization Methods}
In this section, the general ideas behind the optimization methods used in
this work are outlined.
The application of these optimization methods to channel decoding decoding
will be discussed in later chapters.
Two methods are introduced, the \textit{proximal gradient method} and
\ac{ADMM}.
\textit{Proximal algorithms} are algorithms for solving convex optimization \textit{Proximal algorithms} are algorithms for solving convex optimization
problems, that rely on the use of \textit{proximal operators}. problems that rely on the use of \textit{proximal operators}.
The proximal operator $\textbf{prox}_{\lambda f} : \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n$ The proximal operator $\textbf{prox}_{\lambda f} : \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n$
of a function $f:\mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is defined by of a function $f:\mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is defined by
\cite[Sec. 1.1]{proximal_algorithms}% \cite[Sec. 1.1]{proximal_algorithms}%
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\textbf{prox}_{\lambda f}\left( \boldsymbol{v} \right) = \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x}} \left( \textbf{prox}_{\lambda f}\left( \boldsymbol{v} \right)
f\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right) + \frac{1}{2\lambda}\lVert \boldsymbol{x} = \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x} \in \mathbb{R}^n} \left(
- \boldsymbol{v} \rVert_2^2 \right) f\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right) + \frac{1}{2\lambda}\lVert \boldsymbol{x}
- \boldsymbol{v} \rVert_2^2 \right)
.\end{align*} .\end{align*}
% %
This operator computes a point that is a compromise between minimizing $f$ This operator computes a point that is a compromise between minimizing $f$
and staying in the proximity of $\boldsymbol{v}$. and staying in the proximity of $\boldsymbol{v}$.
The parameter $\lambda$ determines how heavily each term is weighed. The parameter $\lambda$ determines how each term is weighed.
The \textit{proximal gradient method} is an iterative optimization method The proximal gradient method is an iterative optimization method
utilizing proximal operators, used to solve problems of the form% utilizing proximal operators, used to solve problems of the form%
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\text{minimize}\hspace{5mm}f\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right) + g\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right) \underset{\boldsymbol{x} \in \mathbb{R}^n}{\text{minimize}}\hspace{5mm}
f\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right) + g\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right)
\end{align*} \end{align*}
% %
that consists of two steps: minimizing $f$ with gradient descent that consists of two steps: minimizing $f$ with gradient descent
@ -492,14 +502,14 @@ and minimizing $g$ using the proximal operator
,\end{align*} ,\end{align*}
% %
Since $g$ is minimized with the proximal operator and is thus not required Since $g$ is minimized with the proximal operator and is thus not required
to be differentiable, it can be used to encode the constraints of the problem to be differentiable, it can be used to encode the constraints of the optimization problem
(e.g., in the form of an \textit{indicator function}, as mentioned in (e.g., in the form of an \textit{indicator function}, as mentioned in
\cite[Sec. 1.2]{proximal_algorithms}). \cite[Sec. 1.2]{proximal_algorithms}).
The \ac{ADMM} is another optimization method. \ac{ADMM} is another optimization method.
In this thesis it will be used to solve a \textit{linear program}, which In this thesis it will be used to solve a \textit{linear program}, which
is a special type of convex optimization problem, where the objective function is a special type of convex optimization problem in which the objective function
is linear, and the constraints consist of linear equalities and inequalities. is linear and the constraints consist of linear equalities and inequalities.
Generally, any linear program can be expressed in \textit{standard form}% Generally, any linear program can be expressed in \textit{standard form}%
\footnote{The inequality $\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0}$ is to be \footnote{The inequality $\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0}$ is to be
interpreted componentwise.} interpreted componentwise.}
@ -507,38 +517,53 @@ interpreted componentwise.}
% %
\begin{alignat}{3} \begin{alignat}{3}
\begin{alignedat}{3} \begin{alignedat}{3}
\text{minimize }\hspace{2mm} && \boldsymbol{\gamma}^\text{T} \boldsymbol{x} \\ \underset{\boldsymbol{x}\in\mathbb{R}^n}{\text{minimize }}\hspace{2mm}
&& \boldsymbol{\gamma}^\text{T} \boldsymbol{x} \\
\text{subject to }\hspace{2mm} && \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} & = \boldsymbol{b} \\ \text{subject to }\hspace{2mm} && \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} & = \boldsymbol{b} \\
&& \boldsymbol{x} & \ge \boldsymbol{0}. && \boldsymbol{x} & \ge \boldsymbol{0},
\end{alignedat} \end{alignedat}
\label{eq:theo:admm_standard} \label{eq:theo:admm_standard}
\end{alignat}% \end{alignat}%
% %
where $\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\gamma} \in \mathbb{R}^n$, $\boldsymbol{b} \in \mathbb{R}^m$
and $\boldsymbol{A}\in\mathbb{R}^{m \times n}$.
A technique called \textit{Lagrangian relaxation} \cite[Sec. 11.4]{intro_to_lin_opt_book} A technique called \textit{Lagrangian relaxation} \cite[Sec. 11.4]{intro_to_lin_opt_book}
can then be applied. can then be applied.
First, some of the constraints are moved into the objective function itself First, some of the constraints are moved into the objective function itself
and weights $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$ are introduced. A new, relaxed problem and weights $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$ are introduced. A new, relaxed problem
is then formulated as is formulated as
% %
\begin{align} \begin{align}
\begin{aligned} \begin{aligned}
\text{minimize }\hspace{2mm} & \boldsymbol{\gamma}^\text{T}\boldsymbol{x} \underset{\boldsymbol{x}\in\mathbb{R}^n}{\text{minimize }}\hspace{2mm}
+ \boldsymbol{\lambda}^\text{T}\left(\boldsymbol{b} & \boldsymbol{\gamma}^\text{T}\boldsymbol{x}
- \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} \right) \\ + \boldsymbol{\lambda}^\text{T}\left(
\boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} - \boldsymbol{b}\right) \\
\text{subject to }\hspace{2mm} & \boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0}, \text{subject to }\hspace{2mm} & \boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0},
\end{aligned} \end{aligned}
\label{eq:theo:admm_relaxed} \label{eq:theo:admm_relaxed}
\end{align}% \end{align}%
% %
the new objective function being the \textit{Lagrangian}% the new objective function being the \textit{Lagrangian}%
\footnote{
Depending on what literature is consulted, the definition of the Lagrangian differs
in the order of $\boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x}$ and $\boldsymbol{b}$.
As will subsequently be seen, however, the only property of the Lagrangian having
any bearing on the optimization process is that minimizing it gives a lower bound
on the optimal objective of the original problem.
This property is satisfied no matter the order of the terms and the order
chosen here is the one used in the \ac{LP} decoding literature making use of
\ac{ADMM}.
}%
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\mathcal{L}\left( \boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right) \mathcal{L}\left( \boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right)
= \boldsymbol{\gamma}^\text{T}\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\gamma}^\text{T}\boldsymbol{x}
+ \boldsymbol{\lambda}^\text{T}\left(\boldsymbol{b} + \boldsymbol{\lambda}^\text{T}\left(
- \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} \right) \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} - \boldsymbol{b}\right)
.\end{align*}% .\end{align*}%
% %
This problem is not directly equivalent to the original one, as the This problem is not directly equivalent to the original one, as the
solution now depends on the choice of the \textit{Lagrange multipliers} solution now depends on the choice of the \textit{Lagrange multipliers}
$\boldsymbol{\lambda}$. $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$.
@ -562,12 +587,12 @@ Furthermore, for uniquely solvable linear programs \textit{strong duality}
always holds \cite[Theorem 4.4]{intro_to_lin_opt_book}. always holds \cite[Theorem 4.4]{intro_to_lin_opt_book}.
This means that not only is it a lower bound, the tightest lower This means that not only is it a lower bound, the tightest lower
bound actually reaches the value itself: bound actually reaches the value itself:
In other words, with the optimal choice of $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$, in other words, with the optimal choice of $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$,
the optimal objectives of the problems (\ref{eq:theo:admm_relaxed}) the optimal objectives of the problems (\ref{eq:theo:admm_relaxed})
and (\ref{eq:theo:admm_standard}) have the same value. and (\ref{eq:theo:admm_standard}) have the same value, i.e.,
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\max_{\boldsymbol{\lambda}} \, \min_{\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0}} \max_{\boldsymbol{\lambda}\in\mathbb{R}^m} \, \min_{\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0}}
\mathcal{L}\left( \boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right) \mathcal{L}\left( \boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right)
= \min_{\substack{\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0} \\ \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} = \min_{\substack{\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0} \\ \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x}
= \boldsymbol{b}}} = \boldsymbol{b}}}
@ -577,7 +602,7 @@ and (\ref{eq:theo:admm_standard}) have the same value.
Thus, we can define the \textit{dual problem} as the search for the tightest lower bound:% Thus, we can define the \textit{dual problem} as the search for the tightest lower bound:%
% %
\begin{align} \begin{align}
\underset{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}{\text{maximize }}\hspace{2mm} \underset{\boldsymbol{\lambda}\in\mathbb{R}^m}{\text{maximize }}\hspace{2mm}
& \min_{\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0}} \mathcal{L} & \min_{\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0}} \mathcal{L}
\left( \boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right) \left( \boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right)
\label{eq:theo:dual} \label{eq:theo:dual}
@ -600,7 +625,7 @@ using equation (\ref{eq:theo:admm_obtain_primal}); then, update $\boldsymbol{\la
using gradient descent \cite[Sec. 2.1]{distr_opt_book}:% using gradient descent \cite[Sec. 2.1]{distr_opt_book}:%
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\boldsymbol{x} &\leftarrow \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x}} \mathcal{L}\left( \boldsymbol{x} &\leftarrow \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x} \ge \boldsymbol{0}} \mathcal{L}\left(
\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right) \\ \boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right) \\
\boldsymbol{\lambda} &\leftarrow \boldsymbol{\lambda} \boldsymbol{\lambda} &\leftarrow \boldsymbol{\lambda}
+ \alpha\left( \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} - \boldsymbol{b} \right), + \alpha\left( \boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{x} - \boldsymbol{b} \right),
@ -608,12 +633,12 @@ using gradient descent \cite[Sec. 2.1]{distr_opt_book}:%
.\end{align*} .\end{align*}
% %
The algorithm can be improved by observing that when the objective function The algorithm can be improved by observing that when the objective function
$g: \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is separable into a number $g: \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is separable into a sum of
$N \in \mathbb{N}$ of sub-functions $N \in \mathbb{N}$ sub-functions
$g_i: \mathbb{R}^{n_i} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$, $g_i: \mathbb{R}^{n_i} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$,
i.e., $g\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right) = \sum_{i=1}^{N} g_i i.e., $g\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right) = \sum_{i=1}^{N} g_i
\left( \boldsymbol{x}_i \right)$, \left( \boldsymbol{x}_i \right)$,
where $\boldsymbol{x}_i,\hspace{1mm} i\in [1:N]$ are subvectors of where $\boldsymbol{x}_i\in\mathbb{R}^{n_i},\hspace{1mm} i\in [1:N]$ are subvectors of
$\boldsymbol{x}$, the Lagrangian is as well: $\boldsymbol{x}$, the Lagrangian is as well:
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
@ -624,12 +649,12 @@ $\boldsymbol{x}$, the Lagrangian is as well:
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\mathcal{L}\left( \left( \boldsymbol{x}_i \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right) \mathcal{L}\left( \left( \boldsymbol{x}_i \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right)
= \sum_{i=1}^{N} g_i\left( \boldsymbol{x}_i \right) = \sum_{i=1}^{N} g_i\left( \boldsymbol{x}_i \right)
+ \boldsymbol{\lambda}^\text{T} \left( \boldsymbol{b} + \boldsymbol{\lambda}^\text{T} \left(
- \sum_{i=1}^{N} \boldsymbol{A}_i\boldsymbol{x_i} \right) \sum_{i=1}^{N} \boldsymbol{A}_i\boldsymbol{x_i} - \boldsymbol{b}\right)
.\end{align*}% .\end{align*}%
% %
The matrices $\boldsymbol{A}_i, \hspace{1mm} i \in [1:N]$ are partitions of The matrices $\boldsymbol{A}_i \in \mathbb{R}^{m \times n_i}, \hspace{1mm} i \in [1:N]$
the matrix $\boldsymbol{A}$, corresponding to form a partition of $\boldsymbol{A}$, corresponding to
$\boldsymbol{A} = \begin{bmatrix} $\boldsymbol{A} = \begin{bmatrix}
\boldsymbol{A}_1 & \boldsymbol{A}_1 &
\ldots & \ldots &
@ -643,7 +668,7 @@ constant.
This modified version of dual ascent is called \textit{dual decomposition}: This modified version of dual ascent is called \textit{dual decomposition}:
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\boldsymbol{x}_i &\leftarrow \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x}_i}\mathcal{L}\left( \boldsymbol{x}_i &\leftarrow \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x}_i \ge \boldsymbol{0}}\mathcal{L}\left(
\left( \boldsymbol{x}_i \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda}\right) \left( \boldsymbol{x}_i \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda}\right)
\hspace{5mm} \forall i \in [1:N]\\ \hspace{5mm} \forall i \in [1:N]\\
\boldsymbol{\lambda} &\leftarrow \boldsymbol{\lambda} \boldsymbol{\lambda} &\leftarrow \boldsymbol{\lambda}
@ -657,14 +682,15 @@ This modified version of dual ascent is called \textit{dual decomposition}:
It only differs in the use of an \textit{augmented Lagrangian} It only differs in the use of an \textit{augmented Lagrangian}
$\mathcal{L}_\mu\left( \left( \boldsymbol{x} \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right)$ $\mathcal{L}_\mu\left( \left( \boldsymbol{x} \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right)$
in order to strengthen the convergence properties. in order to strengthen the convergence properties.
The augmented Lagrangian extends the ordinary one with an additional penalty term The augmented Lagrangian extends the classical one with an additional penalty term
with the penaly parameter $\mu$: with the penalty parameter $\mu$:
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\mathcal{L}_\mu \left( \left( \boldsymbol{x} \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right) \mathcal{L}_\mu \left( \left( \boldsymbol{x} \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda} \right)
= \underbrace{\sum_{i=1}^{N} g_i\left( \boldsymbol{x_i} \right) = \underbrace{\sum_{i=1}^{N} g_i\left( \boldsymbol{x_i} \right)
+ \boldsymbol{\lambda}^\text{T}\left( \boldsymbol{b} + \boldsymbol{\lambda}^\text{T}\left(\sum_{i=1}^{N}
- \sum_{i=1}^{N} \boldsymbol{A}_i\boldsymbol{x}_i \right)}_{\text{Ordinary Lagrangian}} \boldsymbol{A}_i\boldsymbol{x}_i - \boldsymbol{b}\right)}
_{\text{Classical Lagrangian}}
+ \underbrace{\frac{\mu}{2}\left\Vert \sum_{i=1}^{N} \boldsymbol{A}_i\boldsymbol{x}_i + \underbrace{\frac{\mu}{2}\left\Vert \sum_{i=1}^{N} \boldsymbol{A}_i\boldsymbol{x}_i
- \boldsymbol{b} \right\Vert_2^2}_{\text{Penalty term}}, - \boldsymbol{b} \right\Vert_2^2}_{\text{Penalty term}},
\hspace{5mm} \mu > 0 \hspace{5mm} \mu > 0
@ -674,21 +700,20 @@ The steps to solve the problem are the same as with dual decomposition, with the
condition that the step size be $\mu$:% condition that the step size be $\mu$:%
% %
\begin{align*} \begin{align*}
\boldsymbol{x}_i &\leftarrow \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x}_i}\mathcal{L}_\mu\left( \boldsymbol{x}_i &\leftarrow \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x}_i \ge \boldsymbol{0}}\mathcal{L}_\mu\left(
\left( \boldsymbol{x} \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda}\right) \left( \boldsymbol{x} \right)_{i=1}^N, \boldsymbol{\lambda}\right)
\hspace{5mm} \forall i \in [1:N]\\ \hspace{5mm} \forall i \in [1:N]\\
\boldsymbol{\lambda} &\leftarrow \boldsymbol{\lambda} \boldsymbol{\lambda} &\leftarrow \boldsymbol{\lambda}
+ \mu\left( \sum_{i=1}^{N} \boldsymbol{A}_i\boldsymbol{x}_i + \mu\left( \sum_{i=1}^{N} \boldsymbol{A}_i\boldsymbol{x}_i
- \boldsymbol{b} \right), - \boldsymbol{b} \right),
\hspace{5mm} \mu > 0 \hspace{5mm} \mu > 0
% \boldsymbol{x}_1 &\leftarrow \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x}_1}\mathcal{L}_\mu\left(
% \boldsymbol{x}_1, \boldsymbol{x_2}, \boldsymbol{\lambda}\right) \\
% \boldsymbol{x}_2 &\leftarrow \argmin_{\boldsymbol{x}_2}\mathcal{L}_\mu\left(
% \boldsymbol{x}_1, \boldsymbol{x_2}, \boldsymbol{\lambda}\right) \\
% \boldsymbol{\lambda} &\leftarrow \boldsymbol{\lambda}
% + \mu\left( \boldsymbol{A}_1\boldsymbol{x}_1 + \boldsymbol{A}_2\boldsymbol{x}_2
% - \boldsymbol{b} \right),
% \hspace{5mm} \mu > 0
.\end{align*} .\end{align*}
% %
In subsequent chapters, the decoding problem will be reformulated as an
optimization problem using two different methodologies.
In chapter \ref{chapter:proximal_decoding}, a non-convex optimization approach
is chosen and addressed using the proximal gradient method.
In chapter \ref{chapter:lp_dec_using_admm}, an \ac{LP} based optimization problem is
formulated and solved using \ac{ADMM}.

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latex/thesis/thesis.tex
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@ -35,6 +35,7 @@
\usetikzlibrary{spy} \usetikzlibrary{spy}
\usetikzlibrary{shapes.geometric} \usetikzlibrary{shapes.geometric}
\usetikzlibrary{arrows.meta,arrows} \usetikzlibrary{arrows.meta,arrows}
\tikzset{>=latex}
\pgfplotsset{compat=newest} \pgfplotsset{compat=newest}
\usepgfplotslibrary{colorbrewer} \usepgfplotslibrary{colorbrewer}